History of Literary Criticism

Literary Criticism must have been in vogue since antiquity when creative writing originated, yet the emergence of criticism as a systematic study of literature happened in the hands of the Greeks in Europe.

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The Greeks had contributed vast volumes of literary criticism, but only a few of them have been able to sustain the ravages of time. Republic by Plato; Rhetoric, Poetics and Ethics by Aristotle; and On The Sublime by Longinus are remarkable of them. principles and problems.

History of Criticism

Plato (c.427-348 BC): Plato is the pioneer of the systematic study of literature in Europe. Though prior to Plato, the theory of poetry was considered as divine inspiration from Homer up to the time of Hesiod, Simonides, Pindar and many other Greek authors. Aristophanes is found first to make a critical comment on the necessity of Poetry. In the Frogs, Aeschylus (one of its characters) is found to say:

Pray, tell me on what particular ground a poet should claim admiration?

This very question should be considered as the beginning of theoretical criticism. Plato's theory of poetry is based upon two theories namely-

(i) The theory of Inspiration and

(ii) The theory of Imitation or Mimesis.

Also Read: What is Literary Criticism? Types of literary criticism

The first theory upholds the traditional view that poetry is the outcome of divine inspiration. In his second theory, Plato states that-

Poets misrepresent reality and justify bad moral guidance to their readers.

In Plato's opinion, the act of Imitation happens for the purpose of this very misrepresentation. At the very inception of our discussion, we must remember, Plato's Ideal Commonwealth [mentioned in The Republic] where every citizen is expected to know and execute properly his or her specified tasks/duties as a Guardian. The citizens cannot also meddle with other men's business.

On the other hand, the Greek term mimesis was employed by Plato to insinuate impersonation; but now the term is used to mean imitation or, representation in a much broader sense. Now, mimesis means- 

The literal copying of REALITY not only in literature but also in all kinds of visual arts.

Plato, in his celebrated Theory of Ideas or Forms, claims that-

Everything that exists in this world is an imperfect copy of an IDEAL object that exists outside the substance/matter as well as Time-conception measured by the human beings in this earth. The creations of poets and artists are then nothing but trifle copies of copies of that IDEAL REALITY.

So, Plato wanted to banish the poets from his commonwealth.

Aristotle (394-322 BC): Poetics by Aristotle is the most authoritarian treatise on literary criticism ever written. He answers Plato's charges against POETRY through this book. He borrows the theory of Imitation from Plato but brings changes in it. The world is a stern Reality to him. Aristotle's approach to literary criticism is chiefly dependent upon the question-

How exactly does Poetry work?

He finds the answer that Poetry is an Imitation of Reality and the authentic manner of representation of this Reality in literature assists in the act of Purgation of our excess emotions through the evolvement of Pity and Fear. Horace (65-8 BC) The Roman critic Horace is fully indebted to Plato and Aristotle for his theory of poetry. He in his Ars Poetica (On the Art of Poetry) relates the idea that an aspiring author must imitate the Greek models.

He is too practical and less philosophic in his views. It can be said that from him starts the formal criticism. Theoretical propositions are thoroughly shunned by him. Still, his ideas are more dogmatic. Horace is actually an arch-conservative in an age of intellectual revolution. But it is a fact that his sensible advice seems practical even today if the necessary allowance can be made in the literary forms. 

During the period of 1500 AD to 1800 AD, he was the most influential of all literary critics. Above all, his ideas on decorum, delightful teaching and imitation of classical models were accepted by the Renaissance literary critics.

Cassius Longinus (C. 1st to 3rd centuries A.D.):  It is assumed that the treatise On the Sublime was written by Longinus. Even we do not know precisely when the book was written. In this book, Longinus is found concerned for defining precisely the characteristic or element that renders greatness to the classics. Longinus has never been able to be as essential as a critic as the other classical critics. But with the appearance of Romanticism, his popularity increased. Wordsworth himself was highly impressed with him.

Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586): Sidney's An Apology for Poetry was published posthumously in 1595. The book should not be considered as an original work as most of the basic ideas had been taken from Plato, Aristotle and Horace.

Sidney's opinion upholds the view that poetry does not portray the literal description of reality, but a heightened version of reality. He says that the poet teaches and delights; he delights through teaching. He also advocates that 'good style' is essential for a piece of literature having merit.

John Dryden (1631-1700): Dryden established himself as a pragmatic or liberal neo-classical critic. His theory shows the stamps of Aristotelian rules and Horatian doctrine. But he was pragmatic and learned from common sense and experience that his contemporary age would certainly demand some kind of variation from the classical rule. So, he was prepared to change or improve it according to the necessity of his contemporary age. He is called the Father of the English criticism. In Essay of Dramatic Poesie, the definition of a play given by him is-

a just and lively human nature, representing its passions and humour, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject, for the delight and instruction of mankind.

It was apprehended that Beaumont and Fletcher were very popular playwrights though they did not follow the ancient canons of playwriting, and it was needed in England a which had reached a new phase of culture.

So, he was professional enough to accept and discard at the same time from both Aristotle and Horace. In a nutshell, his modern outlook made him understand that the same dramatic form could not please the English audience of the Restoration period which could satisfy the Greeks. none but Dryden who first In this ever-changing tradition of critical concept, we meet next-

1. In the Augustan Age Alexander Pope (1688-1744), Joseph Addison (1672-1719) and Dr Samuel Johnson (1709-1784);

2. In the Romantic Age: William Wordsworth (1770-1850) and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834);

3. In the Victorian Age Matthew Arnold (1822-1888); and

4. In the Modern criticism: Henry James (1843-1916), and T.S. Eliot (1888-1965).